Recombinant DNA

     In the field of genomics, including cellular biology and molecular biology, cloning is possible.  Recombinant DNA (rDNA) is manufactured, and genetic engineering takes place. Genetic engineering is the science of making changes to the genes of a plant or animal to produce desired results.

     Recombinant DNA is commonly known as cloned DNA.  It is a copy of the backbone of who we are as human beings.

     Recombinant DNA is possible because DNA molecules from all organisms share the same chemical structure. DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid. Human genetics teaches, and the Watson-Crick team found, that there is a repeating sugar-phosphate-nucleotide base structure. These sequences make up a map of who we are as individuals.

     If we were using a "genetic copy machine", recombinant DNA would be the ink. 

     Biologically active DNA, in use experimentally since 1977, forms by the individual joining of segments of DNA.  It includes the recombination joint edge of a heteroduplex duplex region where two recombining DNA molecules are connected.

     Recombinant DNA is also called cloned DNA.  This rDNA biotechnology produces many copies of a single fragment of DNA.  A single fragment of DNA is a gene which creates identical copies that constitute a DNA clone.

     In DNA cloning, a DNA fragment is inserted into a small DNA molecule.  This allows a molecule to replicate inside a simple living cell, such as bacteria.  Once the molecule begins replicating it is called a DNA vector/carrier.  Plasmids are circular DNA molecules that originated from bacteria, viruses, and yeast cells.  Plasmids can carry genes that provide the host cell, the cell where the original DNA fragment was inserted, with useful property.  cellular improvements are made.  Some examples are drug resistance, mating ability, toxic production, etc. Plasmids, in the lab, are great because they are small enough to be manipulated, and they will carry out splicing.

     Recombinant DNA has many uses as of 2016.  It is used in research and biotechnology.  It is also used in over-the-counter medicine, as well as prescription medicine.  Using rDNA for positive purposes has become a huge market. There are stacks of applications.

     Chymosin rDNA is commonly referred to as rennin.  The stomach of a cow naturally produces this enzyme. Since 1990, it has been considerably cheaper to clone chymosin.

    "Chymosin splits the casein protein of milk at a specific point and thereby effects clotting.  Casein clumps together to form curd and separates from the watery whey. Subsequently, the ripening process of cheese may begin."(http://arbl.cvmbs.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/digestion/stomach/rennin.html)

     Golden rice has been bioengineered with beta-carotene.  It also has the potential to reduce the prevalence of vitamin A deficiency worldwide.

     Beta-carotene is a carotenoid, antioxidant, that protects cells from damage.  Beta-carotene naturally occurs in carrots, fruits, sweet potatoes, spinach, kale, squash, and fresh fruit.

     Insulin is the product of rDNA engineering, too.  Insulin is the medication injected by diabetics which regulates glucose uptake in the blood stream.  Recombinant DNA human insulin is spawned from humans.  The pharm industry has been ecstatic about it.

     Insulin is a hormone made by the pancreas. Glucose, with the help of insulin, is able to be absorbed into the body.

     Type 1 diabetics have damaged beta cells in their pancreas. They require "sugar".

     Type 2 diabetics conditions aren't as extreme.  They will perform well with oral medications, simple diets, and exercise.

     Biotechnology, and rDNA have made many advances including: recombinant blood clotting factor 8, recombinant hepatitis B vaccine, herbicide-resistant /insect-resistant crops, and others.

     Proteins were first bioengineered as recombinant proteins in 1986.
 
     Recombinant human growth hormone (HGH) is used to support normal growth and development for patients with malfunctions in the pituitary gland. This offers a noticeable benefit when contrasted to previously used methods of obtaining the hormone. 

     Human growth hormone was developed in 1985 and approved by the FDA.

     Vaccines are the result of rDNA technology, too.  Vaccines are r-vectors.  They encode antigens.  These disease fighting antigens are introduced into the host cell.  The host cell, in turn, introduces the antigen to the immune system. 

     With the vector, there isn't a need for formulations, or delivery agents.  The plasmid functions via buffer, and saline solution.  These were established in 1997.

     "DNA cloning/rDNA technology is moving towards synthetic biology techniques.  These advances should enable faster DNA construction of the DNA clones. There will be drastic changes in the production of gene therapy vectors, recombinant protein production processes, and new vaccines."(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mesh/68019444)

     Recombinant DNA (rDNA) involves the science of making changes to the genes of a plant or animal to produce desired results.  The technology has developed in small amounts over time, but it has a wide array of possibilities.

PACs/ SUPER PACs

     We're electing a new president.

     Who are you voting for?

     Republican or Democrat?

     What issues are you rooting to find?

     The political process is very complex.  The issues are fragile.  Our votes are detrimental.  As individuals our votes are important. As groups, we can cause waves.

     Organizations come together to fund politicians.

     According CNN.com, PACs, "may skew the legislative process in the next Congress in favor of the interests of large Super PAC contributors."

     In the image below you will find a list of organization names connected with a PAC.

Political action committees (PACs)-
A group that is formed to give money to the political campaigns of people who are likely to make decisions that would benefit the group's interests

Super political action committees (super PACs)-
established in 2010, both corporations and unions are allowed to make independent expenditures from their general treasuries; and nonconnected PACs, which are independent of corporations, unions, and political parties which make contributions and expenditures to support a particular ideology or issue.

     "The first PAC was created in 1944 by the Congress of Industrial Organizations, which sought to raise funds to assist the reelection of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. PACs were an ancillary part of political campaigns in the U.S. until the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971 (and its amendment in 1974). Ostensibly, the law was established to reduce the influence of money in campaigns by setting strict limits on the amount a particular corporation, union, or private individual could give to a candidate. By soliciting smaller contributions from a much larger number of individuals, however, PACs were able to circumvent these limitations and provide substantial funds for candidates. Following the reforms, the number of PACs proliferated, from about 600 in the early 1970s to more than 4,000 by 2010. With this proliferation came a massive escalation in the cost of running for federal office in the United States (http://www.britannica.com/topic/political-action-committee)."

     Under Federal law, an organization is considered a PAC when it receives or spends more than $2,600 for the purpose of influencing a federal election.

     Donald Trump, Republican businessman, has yet to establish which one of his PACs to support. Donald Trump is backed by MAKE AMERICA GREAT AGAIN, a non-profit organization headed by his daughters-in-laws.

     Hillary Rodham Clinton, Democratic former Secretary of State, is backed by PRIORITIES USA ACTION, and CORRECT THE RECORD, headed by top Clinton allies.

     Democracy is awesome.  We should research our political leaders, and inform ourselves on the issues as much as possible.

     "Few developments in campaigning have been as vilified and misunderstood as independent expenditure PACs, or, as they are colloquially known, super PACs (http://www.usnews.com/opinion/articles/2012/02/17/why-super-pacs-are-good-for-democracy).

     VOTE 2016

NADPH

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate

    Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, is abbreviated as NADP⁺ . It is a cofactor used in anabolic reactions, such as lipid and nucleic acid synthesis, which require NADPH as a reducing agent (http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/)

     NADP is oxidized and NADPH is reduced.

Nadp
Formula: C₂₁H₂₉N₇O

Nadph
Formula:C₂₁H₂₉N₇O₁₇P₃

Let's take a look at each component.

Nicotinamide- 
also known as niacinamide, is a colorless, crystalline, water-soluble solid.
C ₆ H ₆ N ₂ O
, is the amide of nicotinic acid, and a component of the vitamin-B complex,found in meat, liver, fish, whole wheat, and eggs.  It is a primary amide. This chemical is not related to nicotine.

Adenine- 
a compound that is one of the four constituent bases of nucleic acids. Adenine is a purine derivative. It is paired with thymine in double-stranded DNA.

Dinucleotide- 
a nucleotide is a compound consisting of a nucleoside linked to a phosphate group. Nucleotides form the basic structural units of nucleic acids such as DNA. The prefix "di-" means the nucleotide consists of two units.  Each unit is composed of a phosphate, a pentose, and a purine or pyrimidine base.

Phosphate- A salt of phosphoric acid (http://www.chemspider.com/).

The Biology of NADPH-

     Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate acts as a reducing agent in certain anabolic reactions.  NADPH is the reduced form of NADP⁺.  It is a coenzyme.  NADP⁺ has an additional phosphate on the 2' position of the ribose ring, attached to the adenine. NADPH forms when NADP⁺ molecules gain an electron from hydrogen.

     NADP + H¹-> NADPH

     It is an electron carrier in a number of reactions, including lipid synthesis, cholesterol synthesis, fatty acid chain elongation, and nucleic acid synthesis. The electron carrier is alternately oxidized (NADP-) and reduced (NADPH).

Chemical name-
adenosine 5'-(trihydrogen diphosphate), 2'-(dihydrogen phosphate), P'-5'-ester with 3-(aminocarbonyl)-1-beta-D-ribofuranosylpyridinium, inner salt.

Why this chemical is important?

     In plants, NADPH is present during photosynthesis.  NADPH is produced by ferredoxin-NADP⁺ reductase  in the last step of the electron chain of the light reactions.

     It is also used as reducing power for the biosynthetic reactions in the Calvin Cycle to assimilate carbon dioxide.

     In animals, NADPH is abundant during the pentose phosphate pathway.

     In fat, and liver, the isocitrate dehydrogenase mechanism has vast quantities of NADPH.

     In mitochondria, NADH kinase produces NADPH and ADP, using NADH and ATP as substrates.

     NADPH provides the reducing equivalents for biosynthetic reactions and the oxidation-reduction involved in protecting against the toxicity of ROS (reactive oxygen species), allowing the regeneration of GSH (reduced glutathione).

     The NADPH system generates free radicals in immune cells. These radicals are used to destroy pathogens in a process termed the respiratory burst. It is the source of reducing equivalents for cytochrome P450 hydroxylation of aromatic compounds, steroids, alcohols, and drugs.

NADPH

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate

Large Cash Positions

     Predict the economy's next move. 

     That is difficult.  The economy is unpredictable. Diversification is the safety net.

     Currently, March 2016, the economy is very volatile.  It is smart to keep a strong cash position.

     Cash position- 
     A cash position is the amount of cash that a company, investment fund, or bank has on its books at a specific point in time. The cash position is a sign of financial strength and liquidity. In addition to cash itself, it will often take into consideration highly liquid assets such as certificates of deposit, short-term government debt, and other cash equivalents. (http://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/cash_position.asp)

     The beginning of 2016 has marked 21 times that the Dow gained or lost 200,or more, points through March 1 compared to only nine in 2015. That has prompted investors to maintain large cash positions. A large cash reserve, in our early 2016 economy is found to be a reassuring cushion. The stock market has remained volatile up to this point in the year.

     In 2015, "The total cash held by high net households, or those who have $1 million or more investable assets in North America is cited as $3.8 trillion (Capgemini and RBC Wealth Management)."

     "Out of that total, $3 trillion to 3.5 trillion of those assets are estimated to be in the U.S. (Gary Zimmerman, CEO of MaxMyInterest)."

     All portions of the economy aren't tracked. When we are nervous about the economy, we attempt to find a detour from the current financial route. Consumer  checkings, savings accounts, and CDs are not tracked.

     It is a smart investment move, for the low income and high income sectors, to acquire large sums of their assets in cash.

     The trend is aiming towards nesting against market volatility while others want to have cash available to invest. Investors feel more comfortable holding cash, particularly if they have a near-term need for funds to apply towards an upcoming purchase, capital calls on private equity funds, or tax bills.

     The Millenial generation eyewitnessed the Great Recession, and they're wary. The Great Recession lasted from December 2007 to June 2009.  The 8 trillion dollar housing bubble loss of wealth led to sharp cutbacks in consumer spending. Now, investors are investing large portions of their funds in fixed income investments and cash, rather than stocks.  Investors who entered the market during the trough in March 2009 would have tripled their return by the end of 2015.

     "If we recognized the opportunity that the recessionary price drop created, we could have exploited other people's folly. Instead of losing money by selling, we could have bought Johnson & Johnson and increased our long-term total return on our new purchase to just short of 14% per annum (SeekingAlpha, 6/10/15, Chuck Carnevale)"

     Some investors have sought a more conservative approach.  The cause of this approach is the result of potential interest rate hikes, weak economic growth, and an upcoming presidential vote.

     "One of the most important things you can do to help manage the risk of volatile markets is to diversify. While it won't guarantee you won't have losses, it can help limit them. It was put to the test during the extreme market volatility in 2008 (https://www.fidelity.com/viewpoints/investing-ideas/strategies-for-volatile-markets)."

     There isn't a perfect point in time to make the switch towards this prudent cash holding strategy. Investors often tend to mistakenly calculate cash deployment positions and negatively impact their long term goals.

     The alternatives to a large cash position are other assets such as fixed income or stocks. These alternatives may generate greater returns.

     In general, keep 2% to 4% of investment funds in cash, in order to take advantage of opportunities as they appear.  Be prepared for market rebounds. Moving away from short-term volatility means investors decrease their chances of selling stocks at the wrong time.  You could go into short/intermediate bond funds, or low-volatility growing dividend stock funds.  Volatility,  is minimized, but there is some room for growth.

     Investors are keeping large sums of money in cash positions.  This is a smart plan to deal with the economy.

The Mosquito-borne Zika Virus

     Have you heard of the Aedes mosquito?

     It carries the Zika virus.

     In the passed few weeks the Zika virus has been in quite a few headlines. The virus is intruding on our well being.  How is it intruding, though?

     Let's take a look at the situation.

     The Zika virus causes illness.  Most often, the illness isn't outstanding.  The symptoms that accompany the virus only proliferate for approximately a week.  The most susceptible individuals are unborn fetuses.  

     Symptoms:

fever

rash

joint pain

red eyes

     Currently, a vaccine doesn't exist for the Zika virus.

     “Treatment instead focuses on relieving symptoms and includes rest, rehydration, and medications for fever and pain (https://www.google.com/search?site=&source=hp&ei=yESzVqOwFsKs-AG9qJmYDA&q=virus+zika&oq=virus&gs_l=mobile-gws-hp.1.0.0i131l2j0i3j0j0i3.26343.34714.0.36451.10.7.3.1.1.0.328.1393.0j4j2j1.7.0....0...1c.1j4.64.mobile-gws-hp..0.8.916.0.TD24ROd1SLA).”

     The W.H.O. (world health organization) reported that on 1/7/2016, the mosquito-borne, Zika represents an international public health emergency.

    
     “There is an urgent need to do a lot more work,” said Margaret Chan, MD, director-general of the WHO. “We need a coordinated international response to make sure we get to the bottom of this.” -(http://www.who.int/en/)

     

     If the W.H. Organization report doesn't grab your attention, then perhaps some of the other current headlines will.

     Additional Zika virus news:
   
“As Zika Virus Spreads, Doctors Try to Calm Fears”

“Emergency Declared Over Birth Defects Tied to Zika”

“Tiny but Dangerous: The Mosquitoes Spreading Zika”

-(http://www.who.int/en/)

     Research has linked the virus to an already well established disease in children, microencephaly.
Microencaphly causes fetal brain damage resulting in a stillbirth.

    “Officials in Dallas County, TX, reported Feb. 2, 2016, that one person caught Zika through sexual activity. (http://www.m.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/news/20160107/zika-virus-what-you-should-know)

     Quick Zika virus facts:

     1.  3 million to 4 million people could possibly be infected with the virus this year in the Americas.

     2.  Zika virus, first identified in Uganda in 1947, is transmitted by a mosquito that may also carry dengue fever, yellow fever, and the chikungunya virus.  It is also passed via std, and blood transfusion.

     3.  It causes fever, rash, joint pain, and conjunctivitis.

     4.  Treat it with over-the-counter medications for aches and pains. The disease usually runs its course within a week.

     5.  The CDC stated, Jan. 15, that it tested samples provided by Brazilian health authorities from two pregnancies that ended in miscarriage and two infants with microcephaly who died shortly after birth. In the two full-term infants, the Zika virus was present in the brain. In all four cases, genetic testing showed the virus was the same as the Zika strain circulating in Brazil. All four mothers reported having a fever and a rash consistent with Zika virus during their pregnancies, the CDC says.

     6.  CDC Travel Warning- Brazil, Colombia, El Salvador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Martinique, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, Venezuela, and Puerto Rico.

     7.  If you're pregnant, and you've traveled to those areas, then, consult with your doctor.

     8.  Aedes mosquitoes, Zika carriers, are from North, Central, and South America.

     9.  Travel plans- bring mosquito repellant. These mosquitos bite during the day.  They are day time feeders.

     Stay away from mosquito infested areas.  Researches haven't established a complete pathway of the Zika virus.

     In current news,

     “The health department of Campinas, an industrial city near Sao Paulo, said a man with gunshot wounds became infected with Zika after multiple blood transfusions in April 2015. Officials said they determined that one of the people whose donated blood was used in the transfusion had been infected with Zika.”

“Also causing concern is the possibility of transmission through sexual contact. Health officials in Texas reported on Tuesday that a person in Dallas became infected after having sex with another person who had traveled in Venezuela, where the virus is circulating.”

http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/brazil-confirms-zika-infection-from-a-blood-transfusion/

     The Zika virus causes illness.  Most often, the illness isn't outstanding.  The symptoms that accompany the virus only proliferate for approximately a week.  The most susceptible individuals are unborn fetuses.  It can severely affect adults, too.

Business Management: In control.

What is a successful business without control?

     “Control is the regulation of organizational activities so that some targeted element of performance remains within acceptable limits. Control provides ways to adapt to environmental change, to limit the accumulation of errors, to cope with organizational complexity, and to minimize costs (http://college.cengage.com/business/resources/researchcenter/students/index.html)."

     Management control can have a variety of elements.  Control can be targeted toward financial aspects, physical, informational, and human resources.  Proper guidance is the function of managers, controllers, and operating employees.  We must all participate.  The steps have to be precise. 

(1) substantiate standards of future performance

(2) gauge actual performance

(3) assimilate performance to the standards

(4) appraise performance and take appropriate action.

     Directions establish limits.  There are different types.  Operations control focuses on the processes the organization uses to transform resources into products or services. Preliminary control is concerned with the resources that serve as inputs to the system. Screening control is concerned with the transformation processes used by the organization. Post action control is concerned with the outputs of the organization. Most organizations need multiple control systems because no one system alone can provide adequate control.  Financial control focuses on controlling the organization's financial resources.  Structural control addresses how well an organization's structural elements serve their intended purpose.  Strategic control focuses on how effectively the organization's strategies are succeeding in helping the organization meet its goals.

     Control maintenance should include being flexible, accurate, timely, and as objective as possible. Employees may resist organizational controls because of over control, inappropriate focus, rewards for inefficiency, and a desire to avoid accountability.

    “It is difficult for organizations to avoid change as new ideas promote growth for them and their members. Change occurs for many reasons such as new staff roles; increases or decreases in funding; acquisition of new technology; new missions, vision or goals; and to reach new members or clients. Changes can create new opportunities, but are often met with criticism from resistant individuals within the group (http://college.cengage.com/business/resources/researchcenter/students/index.html).”

     If management needs to be reinvigorated, there is always the right time and place.  Should a new management team strategy be implemented?

     There are risks involved in introducing new management to a company.  It is a risk for both the new management team and the existing employees.  Workers wonder about new rules and procedures.

     FAQs include: will the new policy fit the expectations of the new managers, and will management bring in new employees to replace anyone who doesn't fit?

     There is always a degree of resistance to control changes.

     “… Resistance is more a function of inadequate preparation than actual employee reluctance to cooperate (http://work.chron.com/overcoming-resistance-new-management-5910.html).”

     Resistance can be managed.

     Employees respect the need for control.  It is understood that in order to achieve organizational objectives policy must be effective.  Standards of performance must be met. 

     Control change begins with the workplace attitude.  Positive and negative conditioning from management directly reflects physical, financial, and human resource objectives.  Directions can change workers attitudes towards controls from negative to positive.

     Guidance shouldn’t be completely dominant, but realistic.  Guidance shouldn’t be too light, or seemingly inadequate.  Excessive guidance is defined as under-control and over-control.  Neither of these are affective organizational goals.  Management must undergo constant maintenance in order to optimize workers performance.

If a management overhaul is called to order then proper implementation will follow these steps:

-Define output goals for the new management staff.

-Present the new management team to the employees along with their new goals.

-Bestow the overview of the employees’ expected roles to move toward success.

     Company control evaluations will always require updates.  When you update your evaluation process you should aim towards improvement of behavior.  Intelligent introductions of a new management team are important, but team leadership is what makes the change successful.

-Concentrate on end results and outcomes of activities.  This is the alternative to focusing on the way these results are achieved.

-Flexibility of controls may not always get desired results from workers, though. Standards should be subject to change, because faulty standards can cause deviation in performance.

-Ensure that employees participate in designing the control system.  Participation helps employees develop a better understanding of the standards and self-assess their own performance. Self-control is excellent control.

-When the situation allows, managers should reward employees demonstrating acceptable performance. Positive reinforcement motivates other workers to achieve the standard performance.

-When hard workers try to achieve their targets, some amount of deviation in their performance may occur, regardless. Deviations of =5%, for example, may be ignored by managers. The percentage of deviation depends on the nature of product.  Don’t misuse your favorite employees.  Resistance can be controlled.

     Managers can overcome this resistance by improving the effectiveness of controls, allowing employee participation, and developing verification procedures.  What is a successful business without delegating responsibilities to able individuals?

Supply side effects - provide high quality/ low price

     Supply side effects and supply side economics are principles of macroeconomics. Interestingly, we are in sync with blocking inflation, and unemployment.  We can analyze these stabilization policies. We hold that these effects include political motivations and passive taxes.

     Let's define supply-side economics.  We're using two definitions.  Production, supply, inclinations directly reflect living standards. In the long run, income levels demonstrate our ability to produce goods and services that are of value.  Secondly,  higher income levels in coordination with living standards are unachievable without expansion in output, according to econlibrary.org.

     As with any supply of products, we as consumers are always shopping for a sale. Economic requirements on high quality products at a low prices proves to be a constant.

     We all love to take vacations.   Airlines are major in our country.

     Currently-

     American Airlines is challenging foreign rivals by creating a “premium economy” cabin on international routes that boasts some of the perks of business class but a lower ticket price.(Bloomberg - American Spiffs Up Coach Cabin (and Fares) to Win Fliers Abroad http://bloom.bg/1manemz)

     American Airlines is providing high quality at a low price.

     Their flights are giving the consumer extra leg room and added comfort.  Their seats will be wider.  Adjusting in your fight's seat, with a little room to spare, is ergonomically excellent.

     American Airlines will introduce the new section in its international fleet with its first delivery of the Boeing 787-9 Dreamliner in late 2016.

     Cost-savings performance goals won't go away. Suppliers need to develop a strategy that cuts production costs and minimizes risks. Spending segmentation is the first step in the process. There are always categories where quality and risk are alike. From there you can utilize a variety of actions to make progress towards your goals.  Supply side effects cannot be separated from the political realms since it implies a reduced role for government and a less-progressive tax policy.